Leadership Models and Theories: A Brief Overview
The following paper outlines many different leadership theories and models. The purpose of the paper is to familiarize the reader with the basic concepts underlying each model and theory. Without getting into a discussion about what leadership is, (a topic that can and should be discussed at length) it is sufficient to state that for the purpose of this paper leadership will be considered to be the art of influencing others in the manner desired by the leader. Under such a broad definition it is possible to assume that effective leadership may be dependent on the leader, the follower, the situation, or any combination of these factors.1
This paper has been organized according to which leadership aspects are addressed in each model or theory. The paper begins with a description of leadership trait theory, a theory that concerns itself solely with leader characteristics. Cognitive resources theory and the leadership skills model are then explored, and the relationship between the leader and the environment is examined. Following this, five theories that emphasize the dyadic relationship between leader and follower are reviewed. They are: transactional leadership, psychodynamic approach to leadership, participative leadership, leader-member exchange theory and social exchange theory. This is followed by a description of six contingency models. The contingency models explore the relationship between leaders, followers and the situation. The contingency models are addressed in ascending order with respect to the amount of attention given to situational factors. The paper concludes with a look a look at charismatic, transformational and servant leadership. Although these leadership theories could be considered to be contingency models they are addressed separately because of the heightened emphasis that they place on morality and follower development.
Pioneer leadership researchers were confident that personality traits essential for leadership effectiveness could be identified through empirical research. Physical characteristics, aspects of personality, and aptitudes, were areas that were most often studied during early research on leadership traits.2 Although different researchers identified a variety of leadership traits and characteristics, it is generally thought that there are five major leadership traits: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity and sociability.3
Possession of these leadership traits was believed to be the essential component for exhibiting leadership behaviour.4 Leadership was directly linked to goal attainment. Leaders were thought to be individuals to whom group members awarded an increase level of status to once it was demonstrated that he/she could aid the group in achieving its goals.5
Because the trait approach focused exclusively on the leader, however, and not on the followers or the situation, researchers failed to discover any traits that would guarantee leadership success. Although a connection between personality traits and leadership effectiveness was discovered,6 cause and effect were not addressed. Early trait theorists assumed that leadership was innate. They failed to acknowledge that being in a leadership role might facilitate the development of leadership traits. Also, the theory neglected to account for why some individuals might be effective leaders in certain circumstances yet not in others.
The trait approach is not particularly useful because it presumes that personality 3
traits are relatively stable across time. It consequently fails to offer a guideline for leadership development. The approach is not completely without merit, however. Researchers have begun to take aspects of the trait approach and to develop the theory around intervening variables. One such approach is the leadership skills model, which is reviewed shortly.
The trait approach is one of the only leadership theories that focuses exclusively on the leader. The cognitive resources theory and the leadership skills theory, however, have many similarities with the trait approach. A notable difference, though, is that they recognize that situational factors affect leadership effectiveness.
The cognitive resources theory is a situational model that deals with the cognitive abilities of leaders. This theory explores the conditions under which cognitive resources, such as intelligence and experience, relate to leadership effectiveness.7 It is hypothesized that group performance is a construct of a complex interaction between two leader traits, intelligence and experience, one type of leader behaviour, directive leadership, and two aspects of the leadership situation, interpersonal stress and the nature of the task.8
The first proposition of cognitive resources theory is that leader ability contributes to group performance when the leader is directive and followers require guidance.9 The second proposition is that perceived stress influences the relation between intelligence and decision quality.10 The third, and final, proposition is that perceived stress moderates the relation between leader experience and performance.11
The cognitive resources theory expands upon the trait theory and includes 4
situational variables when examining leader behaviour. Leader traits are discussed but only with regards to how they interact with situational variables. It is recognized that leaders do not behave in the same way in all circumstances.
This model is similar to the trait theory but instead of focusing on leader traits, skills possessed by the leader are considered to be the most relevant component for effective leadership. Like the trait theory, the leadership skills model is concerned with leadership behaviour. The skills model, however, recognizes that leadership behaviour can not be removed from its social context.12 Furthermore, it does not propose that leaders are born. However, it does not stipulate that leaders are made either. The skills model suggests that leadership potential is developed through experience.13
The leadership skills model emphasizes that leadership is a social phenomenon.14
Knowledge is the central leadership skill that is referred to in the model.15 Knowledge in social perceptiveness16 is considered essential for effective leadership. The leader is expected to use his/her knowledge to facilitate problem solving even, and perhaps especially, when faced with obstacles such as a lack of resources or time constraints.
The leadership skills model is a cognitive model that relies on the leader’s ability to implement solutions to complex problems.17 It is the job of the leader to determine what problems need to be addressed, when, and how. This model fully explores the interaction between the leader and the environment as the leader develops problem solving skills in order to deal with the demands of his/her position.
Many approaches to leadership examine the dyadic relationship that exists between leaders and followers. This relationship has been examined in a variety of ways. 5
The following five leadership models explore this relationship. They are: transactional leadership, psychodynamic approach to leadership, participative leadership, leader-member exchange theory and social exchange theory.
As one moves from model to model it is possible to see how the relationship between leader and follower can be placed along a continuum. Beginning with the transactional approach, the leader’s role is autocratic and the leader/follower relationship is one sided; decisions are made by the leader alone and followers only affect leader behaviour with regards to contingent rewards. The social exchange theory on the other hand illustrates a dyadic relationship between leader and follower. Indeed, it stipulates that the followers are the ones who chose, and help to shape, leaders.
Transactional leadership is based on an exchange between leaders and followers. It is effective because it is in the best interest of followers to do what the leader wants.18 There are four types of behaviours that are associated with transactional leadership: contingent reward, active management by exception, passive management by exception, and laissez-faire leadership.
Contingent reward behaviour includes the clarification of what is expected of followers in order to receive rewards.19 Rewards, such as money and time-off, are used as incentives to motivate followers to perform. Management by exception refers to leadership that utilizes corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement.20 It can either be active or passive. A leader employing the active form of management by exception is always on the lookout for problems and takes corrective actions immediately following a minor mistake or rule violation by a follower. Such a 6leader is always acutely aware of what his/her followers are doing. A leader using the passive form does not monitor followers as closely, and only reacts to problems once they have occurred.21 Mistakes are only noticed and addressed once they become obvious obstacles to goal attainment. Laissez-faire leadership is descriptive of a leader who acts indifferently to followers and who is not concerned with the mission. This type of leader abdicates all leadership roles and responsibilities. Laissez-faire is often considered a non-leadership factor.22
Although transactional leadership is effective in certain situations, there is increasing evidence that it is not an effective leadership model for achieving long-term objectives. Followers are motivated to perform certain tasks, contingent on rewards, but transactional leadership fails to motivate followers to perform beyond their basic job requirements. It is essential to understand that human behaviour is often based on a series of exchanges, yet the transactional leadership model is too simplistic and offers no explanation for intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, although transactional leadership focuses on the exchange between leaders and followers, it is the leader who has the power and who controls the terms of the relationship.
The psychodynamic approach to leadership is based on the premise that an individual’s first experience with leadership begins the day that he/she is born. This happens through exposure to parents as leaders.23 Developed by psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud, and his disciple Carl Jung, the theory puts forth a variety of concepts that surround leadership in a family setting.
The first concept, the family origin, suggests that the role of the parent is to socialize the child into society and to respond to the basic needs of the infant.24 The second stage is called maturation, or individualization. During this stage the child becomes increasingly independent of his/her parents and learns how to deal with authority figures. Often this is a direct reflection of the child’s relationship with his/her parents.25 Following this stage, as the child becomes an adult, he/she develops relationships with leaders which mirror the parent-child relationship. The young adult may act dependently, counterdependently, or independently towards the leader.26 Finally, as an adult some people may choose to repress their childhood memories and move on. The psychodynamic approach hypothesises, however, that full repression can not occur. It suggests that unwanted memories and feelings if not dealt with directly will take other forms such as an ulcer or anger towards an innocent individual.27
The psychodynamic approach to leadership assumes that an individual can change behaviours and feelings towards leaders by gaining insight into the leadership relationship that they had with their parents. In this way one can develop personal insight and grow as an individual.28 The theory is useful because it analyses the relationship between leader and follower.29 Originally developed to treat people with serious social difficulties, it is currently one of the methods used to improve leader-follower relationships.30 In application, the psychodynamic approach suggests that leaders with insight into their own personality and those of their followers will act more effectively than those without such insight.31
Participative leadership is interactive and allows followers some influence over the leader’s decisions. It may occur in many ways. The following four decision procedures are generally regarded as distinct and meaningful and can be ordered along a continuum beginning with non-participative autocratic decisions, and raging to the highly participative action of delegation:
1. Autocratic decision: the leader makes a decision alone.
2. Consultation: the leader asks followers for their opinions and ideas, then makes the decision alone after seriously considering their suggestions and concerns.
3. Joint decision: the leader meets with followers to discuss the problem and to formulate a decision; the leader has no more influence over the final decision that any other participant.
4. Delegation: the leader gives authority to an individual or group to make a decision. There are usually limits in which the final choice must fall and final approval may or may not be required before implementation.32
There are many benefits to participative leadership. For one, it is likely to increase the quality of a decision, especially when followers have knowledge that the leader lacks. Furthermore, commitment is usually increased with increase influence. Participative leadership can also sharpen the decision making skills of followers and it is, thus, a useful way to develop future leaders. In addition, it can facilitate conflict resolution and team building.33
Participative leadership goes beyond the goal-oriented behaviour that is addressed in the trait approach, while simultaneously extending beyond the simplistic leader/follower exchange that occurs in the transactional leadership model.34 The degree of participative leadership that is awarded to followers is a reflection of his/her individual knowledge and skills, while at the same time limited by leadership ability and situational constraints.35 The leader is not only driven by goal attainment, follower development is a key objective as well.
A leader must not make the decision to delegate lightly. A leader who delegates
then abdicates all responsibility is not performing his/her duties as a leader. An effective leader can delegate while continuously offering guidance and nurturing follower development. Although delegation can easily be an abuse of leadership responsibility and, therefore, could be classified as a non-leadership function, when applied correctly delegation is an excellent leadership tool for follower development and helps to shape leaders for the future.36
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory describes the role making process between a leader and an individual follower. It describes how leaders develop specific relationships over time with different followers. The basic premise behind the theory is that leaders and followers mutually define the follower’s role and, as they do so, leaders develop a separate exchange relationship with each individual follower. The exchange relationship usually takes one of two forms. According to the theory most leaders establish a special exchange relationship with a small number of trusted followers who function as assistants, lieutenants or advisors. These followers are then classified as being in the ‘in-group’. In the exchange relationship with the remaining followers, who are thought of as being in the ‘out-group’, there is relatively little mutual influence.37 The Key to the LMX theory is that there is a dyadic relationship between the leader and each individual follower.
For followers in the ‘out-group’ the main source of leader influence is legitimate authority in combination with coercive power and, to an extent, reward power.38 Leaders behave in a very ‘transactional’ way with followers in the ‘out group’. The basis for establishing a deeper exchange relationship with ‘in-group’ followers is the leader’s control over desirable outcomes for followers such as: assignment to interesting and
desirable tasks, delegation of greater responsibility and authority, more sharing of information, participation in decision making, pay increase, special benefits, personal support and approval, and increased career opportunities.39 In return, however, ‘in-group’ members are expected to work harder than ‘out-group’ members and be more committed to the leader and to the task. Again there is a similarity with transactional leadership, however, as ‘in-group’ members become committed to the leader and the task, their motivation transcends an exchange of benefits.
The development of the leader-follower relationship has been described in terms of a ‘life cycle’ that progresses through three stages.40 The relationship commences with a testing phase in which the leader and the follower evaluate each others’ potential resources, and mutual role expectations are determined. Relationships that never progress beyond this level are those of ‘out-group’ members. During the second stage the mutual exchange arrangement is developed, and mutual trust, loyalty and respect are established. At the third stage, the ‘mature’ stage, mutual commitment to the mission replaces exchanges based on self-interests.
Relationships expanding beyond the first stage are considered those of ‘in-group’ members.41 Recent research on LMX theory has emphasized that leaders should try to establish high quality exchanges with all of their followers, not just with a few favourites.42 This does not mean that the leader has to treat all followers the same, simply that each follower should be made to feel as though he/she is an important and unique member of the team.43
There are many different theories based on social exchanges. Most forms of social interactions are based on an exchange of benefits or favours, either material,
psychological, or both.44 Often it is through a variety of social exchanges that an individual emerges as the leader of a group. A simple demonstration of competence and loyalty to the group may shape the expectations others form about the leadership role that an individual should play in the group . His/her influence over group decisions is then compared to that of other group members. Furthermore, an individual who has demonstrated good judgement accumulates ‘idiosyncratic credit’ which allows him/her more latitude than other group members to deviate from nonessential group norms.45 If a leader steers the group in an innovative way which turns out to be successful his/her expertise is confirmed, and the leader is awarded more influence and status by the group. If the leader’s proposal turns out to be a failure, however, then the group is likely to rethink the terms of the exchange relationship.46
Leaders are responsible for more than simply task accomplishment. Leaders are expected to: organize the work, distribute rewards, provide psychological support, represent the group when dealing with other groups, modify the groups goals as circumstances change, and define reality in a way that is consistent with the underlying needs and values of the group members.47 Innovation is expected of leaders, especially when dealing with serious problems or obstacles.
According to social exchange theory, there are likely to be differences for elected versus appointed leaders. Expectation among followers may be greater for an elected leader compared to an appointed leader. Also, it is theorized that elected leaders have higher feelings of responsibility to the group than appointed leaders do.48
Leader/follower interaction is a key component of the social exchange theory. Like transactional leadership, social exchange theory is based on an exchange of benefits and favours between the leader and the followers, but there are two important differences.
First, in social exchange theory, the exchange might involve more abstract items and followers are motivated by more that what the leader can award to them. Second, in social exchange theory, followers play an active role in determining and retaining the leader. The leader is not a power yielder like the transactional model proposes.
Many leadership models not only take into account the leader/follower relationship but also realise that situational variables affect leadership performance. These models are referred to as contingency models. They recognize that a leader’s impact on followers is dependant on both the leader’s behaviour and the characteristics of the situation. An effective leader in one situation is, therefore, not necessarily an effective leader in all situations.49 Six contingency theories are described in this paper: the LPC Contingency model, Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model, the path-goal theory of leadership, the multiple linkage model of leadership, leadership substitute theory, and Vroom and Yetton’s normative decision model. Each subsequent contingency theory moves away from a centralization of the leader/follower relationship and progressively emphasizes the importance of situational variables on leadership effectiveness.
Fred Fiedler’s Contingency Model of leadership is a situational theory that emphasizes the relationship between leader characteristics and the situation.50 The model describes how the situation moderates the relationship between leadership effectiveness and a trait measure called the least preferred co-worker (LPC) score.51 The LPC score is determined by asking a leader to rate, on a set of bipolar adjectives, the one person with whom he/she worked least well with.52 The score offers a description of the leader’s emotional reaction to an individual who represents an obstacle to goal attainment.53 A leader who is generally critical in rating the least preferred co-worker will obtain a low LPC score. Fiedler describes this type of leader as ‘task oriented’. Contrarily, a leader who is strongly motivated to have close interpersonal relationships with other people will receive a high LPC score. This type of leader is described by Fiedler as ‘relationship oriented’. Fiedler characterizes leaders who receive a medium LPC score as socioindependent.54
According to Fiedler, the relationship between a leader’s LPC score and leadership effectiveness depends on a complex situational variable called ‘situational favourability’ (also called ‘situational control’). Fiedler defines favourability as the extent to which the situation gives a leader control over followers.55 Three aspects of the situation are considered to mediate this relationship: the quality of leader-member relations, the leader’s position power, and the task structure.56 According to this model leadership situations may be classified in one of two ways for each of these three
characteristics.
To summarize, Fiedler’s theory predicts that task-oriented leaders (low LPC) produce high group performance in very favourable or very unfavourable conditions. Relationship-oriented leaders (high LPC) are predicted to produce high group performance only when the situation is moderately favourable, and socioindepent leaders (mid-level LPC) are theorized to perform best in situations that are very favourable.57 Conditions are considered favourable mainly when leader/follower relations are good and either the task is structured and/or position power is high. Exceptions occur, however, and are a consequence of the degree to which leader/follower relations may be good or
bad.
Fiedler suggests that the LPC score reflects stable characteristics of the leader and that a consistent leadership style results from the LPC score. He concludes that it is, therefore, ineffective to try to change a person’s leadership style.58
Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard proposed a contingency theory of leadership that prescribes the use of a different pattern of leadership behaviour depending on the ‘maturity’ of an individual follower.59 Maturity includes two related components. The first, ‘job maturity’ refers to a follower’s task relevant skills and technical knowledge. This component is directly reflective of the follower’s ability to perform a task. The second, ‘psychological maturity’ is indicative of the follower’s self-confidence and self-respect. This aspect influences a follower’s willingness to perform a task.60
According to the theory, the level of follower maturity determines the most favourable pattern of leader behaviour. Leaders can either be directive or supportive. Directive behaviour is similar to Fielder’s task-oriented behaviour and focuses on assuring that followers complete their work tasks efficiently and effectively. Supportive behaviour is similar to Fielder’s relationship-oriented behaviour emphasizes the importance of leaders listening to, encouraging, supporting, and carrying about follower’s welfare.
Given follower readiness and leader behaviour Hersey and Blanchard propose four possible leadership styles, each one relating to a particular combination of follower and leader behaviour. The first is ‘telling’ which represents a directive style of leader behaviour. The leader simply tells followers what to do. It is recommended for followers who have both low job maturity and low psychological maturity. The second
style is ‘selling’ which represents a style of leader behaviour that is both directive and supportive. Here the leader convinces followers of the importance and necessity of task accomplishment. It is recommended for followers who have low job maturity and high psychological maturity. The third is ‘participating’ which represents a supportive style of leader behaviour and involves the leader and follower interacting to determine the proper course of action for a given situation. It is recommended for followers who have high job maturity and low psychological maturity. The fourth is ‘delegating’ which is characterized by a style of leader behaviour, lacking in both supportiveness and directiveness.61 As has been previously discussed, delegation involves the assignment of new responsibilities to followers along with additional authority to perform the new tasks. It is recommended for followers who have both high job maturity and high psychological maturity.
According to Hershey and Blanchard, the maturity level of a follower can be influenced by ‘developmental interventions’. For example, relaxing the amount of direction and delegating more responsibilities for a certain task can increase a follower’s willingness, when coupled with high ability.62 As well, Hershey and Blanchard recognize that follower maturity may regress, requiring continuous adjustment of leader behaviour.63
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed to explain how leadership behaviour can influence the satisfaction and performance of an individual follower.64 It emphasizes the relationship between the leader’s style and both the characteristics of the follower and the situation.65 The theory proposes that a leader’s behaviour is motivating or satisfying to the follower if the behaviour increases the attractiveness of goals, while simultaneously, increasing follower confidence in achieving them.66 The leader is, therefore, very active in guiding, motivating and rewarding followers in their work. In short, the leader steers the follower down a path to their goals by selecting behaviours that are best suited to individual follower’s needs and the situation. In doing so the leader also navigates the follower around obstacles that lie on the path towards goal achievement.67
There are four types of leadership behaviours that are generally included in the model: supportive, directive, participative, and achievement-oriented.68 A supportive leader goes out of his/her way to make work enjoyable for followers and treats them with respect. A directive leader sets clear standards of performance and makes rules and regulations clear to followers in a non-threatening way. Participative leadership involves consulting with followers and taking their contributions into account during decision making. Achievement-oriented leadership is characterized by a leader who challenges followers to perform their best and who demonstrates a high degree of confidence in their ability to do the job.69
The path-goal theory stipulates that a leader may exhibit any or all of these types of leadership, and that the best type of leadership for a given situation will be dependent on the individual follower and the specific situation.70 The theory hypothesizes that when followers are inexperienced and the task is complex then directive leadership is the best course of action. When the task is stressful, boring, tedious and/or dangerous, the theory suggests that supportive leadership is the most effective style of leadership. This is because it is thought to increase follower effort and satisfaction by increasing self-confidence, lowering anxiety and minimizing the unpleasant aspects of work. Participative leadership is suggested to increase follower effort when the task is
unstructured by increasing role clarity and increasing follower autonomy. Achievement-oriented leadership on the other hand is predicted to increase follower effort and satisfaction when the task is unstructured and complex by increasing self confidence and the expectation of successfully accomplishing a challenging task or goal.71
The path-goal leadership theory is similar to the transactional leadership model in so far as both theories emphasize that the job of the leader is to increase the attractiveness of goals to the followers. Path-goal leadership theory, however, stresses the importance of the situation in determining the best course of leader action and is not completely reliant on the use of contingent rewards. Path-goal theory opens up the possibility for long term commitment to goals and for intrinsic motivation by followers. As well, the theory emphasizes that the job of the leader is to eliminate roadblocks that may occur en route to goal achievement while simultaneously developing followers to overcome these obstacles on their own. Transactional leadership, however, fails to address these issues.
The multiple-linkage model builds upon earlier models of leadership and group effectiveness. It was developed by Gary Yukl, and proposes that the overall impact of specific leader behaviours on group performance is complex and is composed of four sets of variables.72 The four variables are: managerial behaviours, intervening variables, criterion variables, and situational variables.
Two of these four variables are influential in determining leader effectiveness. One factor, intervening variables, refers to the immediate effects that the leader’s behaviour has on followers’ job performance. Intervening variables comprise follower effort, follower ability, role clarity, organization of the work, cooperation and team work, resources and support, and external coordination.73 The second set of factors that
moderate the leader’s impact on group performance are situational characteristics.74 Two situational variables that influence follower effort are the formal reward system and the intrinsically motivating properties of the work itself.75 In this model intervening variables may be directly affected by situational characteristics and situational variables may directly affect intervening variables.76 In the short term, the job of the leader is to correct deficiencies arising in the intervening variables. In the long term, the job of the leader is to improve situational factors.77
Leadership substitute theory is a leadership model that identifies situational aspects that reduce or eliminate the need for a leader. The theory identifies two types of situational variables that affect the need for a leader: substitutes and neutralizers. Substitutes act instead of a leader and make leader behaviour redundant. Neutralizers prevent a leader from acting effectively.78
Although, the theory does not explicitly identify intervening variables, role clarity and task motivation, are implicit in the assumptions of the model.79 As well, follower characteristics, task characteristics, and organizational characteristics, shape whether or not certain behaviours will act as leadership neutralizers or substitutes.80 In short, substitutes may be aspects of the situation, or characteristics of the follower, that cause intervening variables to be very high. When intervening variables are very high they may be substituted for leader behaviour. Neutralizers, on the other hand, are constraints that prevent the leader from making improvements to the intervening variables.81 Neutralizers block leader effectiveness.
In this way, both follower characteristics and aspects of the situation, determine whether or not leadership will be effective. The importance of leader behaviour is often
overshadowed in the theory, however, and different types of leadership behaviour are not explicitly addressed.
V.H. Vroom and P.W. Yetton developed a leadership model that specifies which decision procedures should be most effective in each of several specific situations. They stipulate that the overall effectiveness of a decision depends on two intervening variables: decision quality and decision acceptance by followers.82 Decision quality is the objective aspects of the decision that affect group performance regardless of any effects mediated by decision acceptance. Decision acceptance refers to the degree of follower commitment in implementing a decision effectively.83
Both decision quality and decision acceptance are affected by follower participation during decision making. As well, the behaviour used by the leader when making decisions can affect these variables, and it should be noted that the situation is also a key factor for decision quality and decision acceptance.84
Vroom and Yetton identify five possible decision procedures for decisions involving more than one follower. Two are considered to be autocratic, two are thought to be varieties of consultation, and one is considered a type of joint decision making.85
They then identify five aspects of the situation that mediate the effectiveness of the decision procedure. These aspects of the situation relate to knowledge of relevant information and the degree to which followers are willing to cooperate in carrying out a mission.86
Vroom and Yetton conclude by proposing seven basic rules that may be applied when determining which type of decision procedure should be used under which circumstance.87 The model was revised in 1988. The new model offers a guideline for
determining the relative priority of different criteria. Time restraints, follower knowledge and the geographical dispersion of followers are more explicitly addressed.88
The normative decision model incorporates aspects of participative leadership and sets guidelines for when certain types of leadership behaviour will be effective. The model is also very similar to the leader substitute theory. The main difference between the two is that the normative decision model emphasizes leader behaviour and offers suggestions for how leaders can perform effectively when faced with neutralizers and substitutes, whereas, leader substitute theory sufficed to state that leadership substitutes and neutralizers exist.
Charismatic leadership, transformational leadership and servant leadership can all be considered contingency models; they all acknowledge the relationship between leaders, followers and the situation. They differ from the previous six contingency models, however. These models apply far greater equality between the three factors. Increasingly, these models introduce the idea of leaders having an ethical and moral obligation to their followers. They are also geared towards follower growth and development. For these reasons they deserve to be grouped apart from the other contingency models.
It is widely believed that charismatic leaders are the product of follower perceptions and attributions that are influenced by actual leader traits and behaviour, the context of the situation, and the individual and collective needs of the followers.89 There are many different theories of charismatic leadership. Although they differ in their reasons for why charisma has been attributed to the leader they all share the basic assumption of what a charismatic leader is. This section describes charismatic leadership in general without delving into the details of each specific theory of charismatic leadership.
Charisma is a Greek word that means “divinely inspired gift”.90 The term has since been used to describe a leader whose followers think that he/she is endowed with exceptional qualities. Such a leader is thought to yield influence over his/her followers because of these special powers instead of needing to use traditional or formal forms of authority.91
Charisma is believed to be attributed to leaders who advocate a unique vision, yet one that lies within the range of acceptability by followers. It is thought more likely to be attributed to leaders who act in unconventional ways to achieve their vision. Furthermore, leaders who make self-sacrifice, take personal risk, and incur high costs to achieve their vision are more likely to be viewed as charismatic.92
Often the followers of a charismatic leader think that the leader’s beliefs are correct. They, therefore, obey the leader willingly and without question, feel affection towards the leader, and are emotionally involved in the mission. As well, followers of a charismatic leader often believe that they can contribute to the success of the mission and consequently set high performance goals for themselves.93
On their own part, charismatic leaders usually have high self-confidence and a strong need for power. They often hold a strong conviction in their own beliefs and ideals, and use these to articulate ideological goals relating the mission, with the hope that followers will imitate their behaviour. Charismatic leaders are likely to engage in behaviours designed to impress their competence upon their followers and they hold high
expectations about follower’s performance while simultaneously expressing confidence them.94
Charismatic leadership is similar to the trait approach yet important differences distinguish the two. Whereas the trait approach focuses exclusively on the leader, charismatic leadership theories appreciate the connection between leaders, followers, and the situation. Indeed, a charismatic leader is thought to be the product of his/her followers. Charismatic leaders are also thought of as having strong beliefs and their emergence is very dependent upon the situation. Trait theories, however, neglect to address these issues. It is important to note, however, that there has been a ‘dark side’ associated with charismatic leadership. The personal power awarded to a charismatic leader can make them insensitive, manipulative, domineering, impulsive and/or defensive, creating a negative impact on the organization as a whole.95
Transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms individuals. It is often associated with ethics and involves long term goals.96 It is not thought to involve an exchange between leader and follower such as exists for transactional leadership. Instead, transformational leadership focuses on the process by which the leader engages with followers, and together create a connection that raises each of them to higher levels of motivation and morality.97 A transformational leader must be attentive to follower needs and motivation, and tries to help followers reach their full potential.98
According to B.M. Bass, one of the leading theorist’s on transformational leadership, the leader transforms and motivates followers by: making them more aware of the importance of task outcomes, inducing them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the organization or team, and activating their higher order needs.99 It is
hypothesized that follower motivation and performance are enhanced more by transformational leadership than by transactional leadership.100
Transformational leadership is concerned both with the performance of followers as well as developing them to their full potential. There are four main factors that have been associated with transformational leaders: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.
Idealized influence, also called charisma, is a factor that generally describes individuals who are unique, and whom people naturally want to follow.101 It describes leaders who act as strong role models and is usually associated with very high standards of moral and ethical conduct. These leaders are greatly respected by followers and provide followers with a vision and a sense of mission.102
Inspirational motivation is descriptive of a leader who inspires followers to be committed to and share his/her vision in the organization. This is achieved through the use of symbols and emotional appeals to followers in order to focus their attention on the goals of the organization. The leader, thus, encourages followers to transcend their own self-interests in order to pursue organizational goals.103
Intellectual stimulation includes leadership that promotes followers to be creative and innovative by stimulating followers to challenge their own beliefs and values as well as those of the leader and the organization.104 It encourages followers to think through problems and to actively seek out solutions. Intellectual stimulation in the work environment helps to develop problem solving skills for both followers and leaders.
Individualized consideration is a factor that describes leaders who create a supportive climate for followers. Leaders listen carefully to the individual needs of followers and through coaching and advising help followers become self-actualized.105 Through the use of these four factors, transformational leaders empower and elevate their followers.
Robert K. Greenleaf is credited with having developed the servant leadership model. This model is based on the idea of the servant as a leader,106 or more conceptually of a leader having the duty to serve his/her followers. Servant leadership was created as an attempt to link previous paradoxes concerning leadership. Task accomplishment is a focus, yet it is also recognized that leaders should be aware of the social implication associated with task accomplishment. Leadership effectiveness is another concern but global efficiency, the concern for long range human and environmental welfare, is equally weighted in Greenleaf’s model.107
The servant leadership model goes a step beyond the transformational leadership models. Servant leadership stresses ethical practice, whereas, only certain transformational theorists suggested that ethical behaviour is a necessary component of transformational leadership.108
Although there are some aspects of Greenleaf’s model that take on religious overtones, the basic assumption of leaders having a duty to serve in ethically and environmentally conscious ways is a strong base upon which to build. Greenleaf does not concern himself about the specific characteristics of leaders, followers, or the situation. Instead, while recognizing that these are factors, he focuses on global long term effects of leadership behaviours. Greenleaf’s model proposes ethical standards for long term goals and demonstrates how people should view the long range consequences of a mission.
This paper provides a introduction to leadership models and theories. Although it is possible to organize leadership models in a variety of ways, conceptualizing the leader, follower, situation, triadic relationship is important; it is a reminder that leadership does not occur in a vacuum. It is also crucial to understand this relationship when exploring leadership in the Canadian Forces (CF). The CF is a prime example of an organization in which leaders, followers, and the situation, all contribute to the outcome of a mission. This paper can, therefore, be used as a framework for understanding leadership in the CF.
1. It is possible that there are other factors that do not fit into these categories, but this paper concerns itself exclusively with these three leadership factors.
2. Aspects of personality and aptitudes were both measured by psychological tests. Yukl,
G. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 4th Edition, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,
1998), 235
3. P.G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
1997), 17
4. In this case leadership behaviour refers to actions taken by the leader in order to facilitate goal attainment; this includes recruitment of followers. It should be noted that more recent leadership theories consider the role of the leader as extending beyond mission accomplishment.
5. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 236
6. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 29
7. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 286
8. ibid, 286
9. ibid, 286
10. ibid, 286
11. ibid, 287
12. M.D. Mumford, S.J. Zaccaro, F.D. Harding, T.O. Jacobs and E.A. Fleishman,
‘Leadership Skills for a Changing World: Solving Complex Social Problems,’
(Leadership Quarterly, 11 2000), 26
13. Mumford, ‘Leadership Skills for a Changing World,’ 24
14. ibid, 14
15. Knowledge is considered to reflect a collection of key facts and principles pertaining to the characteristics of objects lying in a certain domain. It is not considered to be simply an accumulation of information.
ibid, 20
16. Social perceptiveness refers to the ability to have insight into the needs, goals, demands, and problems of followers and the social setting in which they are situated. In
such a way leadership skills model can be considered to involve a three way interaction between the leader, follower and the situation. The emphasis is, however, on the interaction between the leader and the situation, and followers are often though to be part of the situation.
ibid, 19
17. ibid, 26
18. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 137
19. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 326
20. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 138
21. ibid, 138
22. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 139 and Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 326
23. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 184
24. ibid, 185-186
25. ibid, 186
26. ibid, 186-187
27. ibid, 187-188
28. ibid, 189-190
29. ibid, 190,192
30. ibid, 192,194
31. ibid, 202
32. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 123
33. ibid, 124-125
34. ibid, 122-123
35. ibid, 138-139
36. B.M. Bass and B.J. Avolio, Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through
Transformational Leadership, (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1994), 13-15
37. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 150
38. Coercive power refers to the leader’s ability to manipulate follower behaviour with the use of negative reinforcement or punishment. Reward power is based on the ability of a leader to deliver rewards for behaviour.
ibid, 150
39. ibid, 150
40. ibid, 151
41. ibid, 151
42. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 127
43. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 151
44. ibid, 189
45. ibid, 189
46. ibid, 189
47. ibid, 190
48. ibid, 190
49. J.P. Howell and D.L. Costley, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership,
(Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2001), 37-38
50. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 38
51. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 283
52. ibid 283
53. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 38
54. ibid, 38
55. P.B. Smith and M.F. Peterson, Leadership, Organizations and Culture, (London: Sage
Publications, 1988), 17-18
56. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership,38 and Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 283
57. Howell,Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 39-40
58. ibid, 40
59. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 270
60. ibid, 270
61. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 41
62. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 271
63. ibid, 272
64. ibid, 266
65. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 88
66. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 42
67. Smith, Leadership, Organizations and Culture, 21
68. It should be noted however, that path-goal leadership theory in explicitly left open to the inclusion of other variables.
Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 43; Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 88 and Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 266-267
69. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 43; Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 90-91 and Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 266-267
70. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 91
71. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 267-268
72. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 46 proposes only two sets of factors, whereas Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 276 proposes 4.
73. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 276
74. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 46
75. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 276
76. ibid, 276
77. Howell, Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership, 47
78. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 273
79. ibid, 273
80. ibid, 273-274
81. ibid, 273
82. ibid, 127
83. ibid, 128
84. ibid, 127
85. For more details see Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 129
86. For more details see Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 129
87. For more details see Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 130-131
88. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 131
89. ibid, 299
90. ibid, 298
91. ibid, 298
92. ibid, 302; mainly based on Conger and Kanungo (1987) and Conger’s (1989) attribution theory of charisma.
93. ibid, 299; mainly based on House’s (1977) theory of charismatic leadership.
94. ibid, 299-300; mainly based on House’s (1977) theory of charismatic leadership.
95. ibid, 319
96. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 130
97. ibid, 131
98. Bass, Improving Organizational Effectiveness, 14
99. ibid, 14-15
100. Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 325;
101. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, 135
102. ibid, 134-135
103. ibid, 135-136
104. ibid, 136
105. ibid, 137
106. R.K. Greenleaf, The Power of Servant Leadership, (San Francisco: Berret-
Koehler Publishers, Inc., 1998), forward, X
107. Greenleaf, The Power of Servant Leadership, forward, X
108. For J.M. Burns transformational leadership had to be ethical, however, for B.M. Bass leadership had no ethical requirement.
Yukl, Leadership in Organisations, 327.
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Recommended Readings
The following books offer a general overview of leadership models and theories:
Howell, J.P. and D.L. Costley. Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership.
Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2001.
In particular Howell and Costley provide a good review of Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership, Hersey and Blanchard’s situational model of leadership, path-goal leadership theory, and the multiple linkage model of leadership. They also explore many other leadership topics and devote a chapter to followership.
Northouse, P.G. Leadership: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
1997.
This book offers an extensive overview of many leadership models. It also provides a section on women in leadership. It is well organized and current and should be considered one of the top books dealing with leadership theories and practices.
Stogdill, R.M. Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research.
New York: The Free Press, 1974.
Although no longer current, Stogdill’s book is a good way to study older models of leadership and helps the reader to put things into historical context.
Yukl, G. Leadership in Organisations. 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,
1998.
This another very good book on leadership theories and practices. It’s main focus is on leadership in organization, yet a lot of the material is applicable to other situations.
The following is a list of books and articles that provide insight into on the topic of military leadership:
Hammond, J.W. ‘First Things First: Improving Canadian Military Leadership’.
Canadian Defence Quarterly, 27 (1998), 6-11.
Hammond’s article offers an insightful view on reconstructing leadership in the military.
Newman, R.S. Follow Me II: More on the Human Element in Leadership. Novato,
Presidio Press, 1992.
Newman examines many aspects of military leadership and addresses some key leadership problems. Conflicts that arise between leadership and military culture are examined and Newman attempts to offer solutions to potential problems.
Taylor, R.L. and W.E. Rosenbach. Military Leadership: in Pursuit of Excellence.
Colorado: Westview Press, 2000.
This book is a collection of essays that discusses leadership styles and techniques as they
Recommended readings on cognitive resources theory:
Yukl, G. . 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,
1998, chapter 11. Leadership in Organisations
Recommended readings on leadership skills model:
Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Bass, B.M. and B.J. Avolio.
. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1994, full range
Transformational Leadership
leadership model.
Mumford, M.D., S.J. Zaccaro, F.D. Harding, T.O. Jacobs and E.A. Fleishman.
, 11 (2000), 11-35. ‘Leadership Skills for a Changing World: Solving Complex Social Problems.’
Leadership Quarterly
Recommended readings on the psychodynamic approach to leadership:
Northouse, P.G. . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
1997, chapter 10. Leadership: Theory and Practice
Sinclair, A. . Melbourne: Melbourne University
Doing Leadership Differently
Press, 1998.
Recommended readings on participative leadership:
Yukl, G. . 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Leadership in Organisations
1998, chapter 6.
Recommended readings on leader-member exchange theory:
Northouse, P.G. . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
1997, chapter 7. Leadership: Theory and Practice
Yukl, G. . 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Leadership in Organisations
1998, chapter 7.
Recommended readings on social exchange theory:
Yukl, G. . 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Leadership in Organisations
1998, chapter 8.
pertain to the military environment. Ethics, motivation, and leadership reconstruction for the military are addressed.
Recommended readings on trait theory:
Northouse, P.G. Leadership: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
1997, chapter 2.
Stogdill, R.M. Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research.
New York: The Free Press, 1974, chapter 2.
Yukl, G. Leadership in Organisations. 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1998, chapter 10.
Recommended readings on contingency models:
. Howell, J.P. and D.L. Costley.
Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2001, chapter 3. Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership
. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Northouse, P.G.
1997, chapter 5. Leadership: Theory and Practice
. London: Sage Smith, P.B. and M.F. Peterson.
Publications, 1988, chapter 2. Leadership, Organizations and Culture
. 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., Yukl, G.
Leadership in Organisations
1998, chapter 11.
Recommended readings on charismatic leadership: . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Northouse, P.G.
Leadership: Theory and Practice
Yukl, G. . 4th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1997, chapter 8.
Leadership in Organisations
1998, chapter 12.
Recommended readings on transformational leadership:
Bass, B.M. and B.J. Avolio.
Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through
. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1994.
Transformational Leadership
Northouse, P.G. . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
Leadership: Theory and Practice
1997, chapter 8.
Recommended readings on servant leadership:
Greenleaf, R.K. . San Francisco: Berret-
The Power of Servant Leadership
Koehler Publishers, Inc., 1998.
Northouse, P.G. . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
1997, chapter 12. Leadership: Theory and Practice